Safe Home Tip: Swimming Pool Safety

Home Pools

Swimming pools should always be happy places. Unfortunately, each year thousands of American
families confront swimming pool tragedies, drownings, and near-drownings of young children. At the
Master Inspector Certification Board, we want to prevent these tragedies. These are guidelines for pool
barriers that can help prevent most submersion incidents involving young children. These guidelines are
not intended as the sole method to minimize pool drowning of young children, but include helpful safety
tips for safer pools.

Each year, hundreds of young children die and
thousands come close to death due to submersion in
residential swimming pools. The Consumer Product
Safety Commission (CPSC) has estimated that each
year, about 300 children under the age of 5 drown in
swimming pools. Hospital emergency-room
treatment is required for more than 2,000 children
under 5 who were submerged in residential pools.
The CPSC did an extensive study of swimming pool
accidents, both fatal drownings and near-fatal
submersions, in California, Arizona and Florida --
states in which home swimming pools are very
popular and used during much of the year.

Here are some of the study’s findings:

• In California, Arizona and Florida, drowning was the leading cause of accidental death in and
  around the home for children under the age of 5.
• Seventy-five percent of the children involved in swimming pool submersion or drowning
  accidents were between 1 and 3 years old.
• Boys between 1 and 3 were the most likely victims of fatal drownings and near-fatal
  submersions in residential swimming pools.
• Most of the victims were in the presence of one or both parents when the swimming pool
  accident occurred.
• Nearly half of the child victims were last seen in the house before the pool accident occurred. In
  addition, 23% of the accident victims were last seen on the porch or patio, or in the yard.
  This means that 69% of the children who became victims in swimming pool accidents were not
  expected to be in or at the pool, but were found drowned or submerged in the water.
  Sixty-five percent of the accidents occurred in a pool owned by the victim’s immediate family,
  and 33% of the accidents occurred in pools owned by relatives or friends.
• Fewer than 2% of the pool accidents were the result of children trespassing on property where
  they didn’t live or belong.
• Seventy-seven percent of the swimming pool accident victims had been missing for five minutes
  or less when they were found in the pool, drowned or submerged.

The speed with which swimming pool drownings and submersions can occur is a special concern: by the
time a child’s absence is noted, the child may have drowned. Anyone who has cared for a toddler knows
how fast young children can move. Toddlers are inquisitive and impulsive and lack a realistic sense of
danger. These behaviors, coupled with a child’s ability to move quickly and unpredictably, make
swimming pools particularly hazardous for households with young children.

Swimming pool drownings of young children have another particularly insidious feature: these are silent
deaths. It is unlikely that splashing or screaming will occur to alert a parent or caregiver that a child is in
trouble. The best way to reduce child drownings in residential pools is for pool owners to construct and
maintain barriers that prevent young children from gaining access to pools. However, there are no
substitutes for diligent supervision.

Why the Swimming Pool Guidelines Were Developed

A young child can get over a pool barrier if the barrier is too low, or if the barrier has handholds or
footholds for a child to use for climbing. The guidelines recommend that the top of a pool barrier be at
least 48 inches above grade, measured on the side of the barrier that faces away from the swimming
pool. Eliminating handholds and footholds, and minimizing the size of openings in a barrier’s
construction, can prevent inquisitive children from climbing pool barriers.

For a solid barrier, no indentations or protrusions should be present, other than normal construction
tolerances and masonry joints. For a barrier (fence) made up of horizontal and vertical members, if the
distance between the tops of the horizontal members is less than 45 inches, the horizontal members
should be on the swimming pool-side of the fence. The spacing of the vertical members should not
exceed 1-3/4 inches. This size is based on the foot-width of a young child, and is intended to reduce the
potential for a child to gain a foothold. If there are any decorative cutouts in the fence, the space within
the cutouts should not exceed 1-3/4 inches.

The definition of a pool includes spas and hot tubs. The swimming pool-barrier guidelines, therefore,
apply to these structures, as well as to conventional swimming pools.

How to Prevent a Child from Getting Over a Pool Barrier

A successful pool barrier prevents a child from getting over, under or
through, and keeps the child from gaining access to the pool except
when supervising adults are present.

The Swimming Pool-Barrier Guidelines

If the distance between the tops of the horizontal members is more
than 45 inches, the horizontal members can be on the side of the
fence facing away from the pool. The spacing between vertical
members should not exceed 4 inches. This size is based on the head-
breadth and chest-depth of a young child, and is intended to prevent
a child from passing through an opening. Again, if there are any
decorative cutouts in the fence, the space within the cutouts should
not exceed 1-3/4 inches.

For a chain-link fence, the mesh size should not exceed 1-1/4 inches square, unless slats fastened at the
top or bottom of the fence are used to reduce the mesh openings to no more than 1-3/4 inches.

For a fence made up of diagonal members (lattice work), the maximum opening in the lattice should not
exceed 1-3/4 inches.

Above-ground pools should have barriers. The pool structure itself can sometimes serves as a barrier, or
a barrier can be mounted on top of the pool structure. Then, there are two possible ways to prevent
young children from climbing up into an above-ground pool. The steps or ladder can be designed to be
secured, locked or removed to prevent access, or the steps or ladder can be surrounded by a barrier,
such as those described above. For any pool barrier, the maximum clearance at the bottom of the
barrier should not exceed 4 inches above

If an above-ground pool has a barrier on the top of the pool, the maximum vertical clearance between
the top of the pool and the bottom of the barrier should not exceed 4 inches. Preventing a child from
getting through a pool barrier can be done by restricting the sizes of openings in a barrier, and by using
self-closing and self-latching gates.

To prevent a young child from getting through a fence or other barrier, all openings should be small
enough so that a 4-inch diameter sphere cannot pass through. This size is based on the head-breadth
and chest-depth of a young child.

Gates

There are two kinds of gates that may be found at a residential property. Both can play a part in the
design of a swimming pool barrier.

Pedestrian gates are the gates people walk through. Swimming pool barriers should be equipped with a
gate or gates that restrict access to the pool. A locking device should be included in the gate's design.
Gates should open out from the pool and should be self-closing and self-latching. If a gate is properly
designed, even if the gate is not completely latched, a young child pushing on the gate in order to enter
the pool area will at least close the gate and may actually engage the latch. When the release
mechanism of the self-latching device is less than 54 inches from the bottom of the gate, the release
mechanism for the gate should be at least 3 inches below the top of the gate on the side facing the pool.
Placing the release mechanism at this height prevents a young child from reaching over the top of the
gate and releasing the latch. Also, the gate and barrier should have no opening greater than 1/2-inch
within 18 inches of the latch’s releasemechanism. This prevents a young child from reaching through
the gate and releasing the latch.

Other gates should be equipped with self-latching devices. The self-latching devices should be installed
as described for pedestrian gates.

How to Prevent a Child from Getting Under or Through a Pool Barrier

Many homes with pools have doors that open directly onto the pool area or onto a patio that leads to
the pool. In such cases, the wall of the house is an important part of the pool barrier, and passage
through any doors in the house wall should be controlled by security measures. The importance of
controlling a young child’s movements from the house to the pool is demonstrated by the statistics
obtained during the CPSC’s study of pool incidents in California, Arizona and Florida. Almost half (46%)
of the children who became victims of pool accidents were last seen in the house just before they were
found in the pool.

All doors that permit access to a swimming pool should be equipped with an audible alarm that sounds
when the door and/or screen are opened. The alarm should sound for 30 seconds or more within seven
seconds after the door is opened. It should also be loud (at least 85 decibels) when measured 10 feet
away from the alarm mechanism. The alarm sound should be distinct from other sounds in the house,
such as the telephone, doorbell and smoke alarm. The alarm should have an automatic re-set feature.
Because adults will want to pass through house doors in the pool barrier without setting off the alarm,
the alarm should have a switch that allows them to temporarily de-activate the alarm for up to 15
seconds. The de-activation switch could be a touch pad (keypad) or a manual switch, and should be
located at least 54 inches above the threshold of the door protected by the alarm. This height was
selected based on the reaching ability of young children.

Power safety covers can be installed on pools to serve as security barriers. Power safety covers should
conform to the specifications in ASTM F 1346-91. This standard specifies safety performance
requirements for pool covers to protect young children from drowning. Self-closing doors with self-
latching devices could also be used to safeguard doors that permit ready access to a swimming pool.

Indoor Pools

When a pool is located completely within a house, the walls that surround the pool should be equipped
to serve as pool safety barriers. The measures recommended above where a house wall serves as part
of a safety barrier also apply for all the walls surrounding an indoor pool.

Guidelines

An outdoor swimming pool, including an in-ground, above-ground, or on-ground pool, hot tub, or spa,
should be provided with a barrier that complies with the following:
1. The top of the barrier should be at least 48 inches above grade, measured on the side of the barrier
that faces away from the swimming pool. The maximum vertical clearance between grade and the
bottom of the barrier should be 4 inches measured on the side of the barrier that faces away from the
swimming pool. Where the top of the pool structure is above grade, such as an above-ground pool, the
barrier may be at ground level, such as the pool structure, or mounted on top of the pool structure.
Where the barrier is mounted on top of the pool structure, the maximum vertical clearance between
the top of the pool structure and the bottom of the barrier should be 4 inches.
2. Openings in the barrier should not allow the passage of a 4-inch diameter sphere.
3. Solid barriers, which do not have openings, such as a masonry and stone wall, should not contain
indentations or protrusions, except for normal construction tolerances and tooled masonry joints.
4. Where the barrier is composed of horizontal and vertical members, and the distance between the
tops of the horizontal members is less than 45 inches, the horizontal members should be located on the
swimming pool-side of the fence.
Spacing between vertical members should not exceed 1-3/4 inches in width. Where there are decorative
cutouts, spacing within the cutouts should not exceed 1-3/4 inches in width.
5. Where the barrier is composed of horizontal and vertical members, and the distance between the
tops of the horizontal members is 45 inches or more, spacing between vertical members should not
exceed 4 inches. Where there are decorative cutouts, spacing within the cutouts should not exceed
1-3/4 inches in width.
6. The maximum mesh size for chain-link fences should not exceed 1-3/4 inch square, unless the fence is
provided with slats fastened at the top or the bottom, which reduce the openings to no more than 1-3/4
inches.
7. Where the barrier is composed of diagonal members, such as a lattice fence, the maximum opening
formed by the diagonal members should be no more than 1-3/4 inches.
8. Access gates to the pool should be equipped to accommodate a locking device. Pedestrian access
gates should open outward, away from the pool, and should be self-closing and have a self-latching
device. Gates other than pedestrian access gates should have a self-latching device, where the release
mechanism of the self-latching device is located less than 54 inches from the bottom of the gate.

• The release mechanism should be located on the pool-side of the gate at least 3 inches below the top of the gate.
• The gate and barrier should have no opening greater than 1/2-inch within 18 inches of the release mechanism.

9. Where a wall of a dwelling serves as part of the barrier, one of the following should apply:

• All doors with direct access to the pool through that wall should be equipped with an alarm that produces an audible warning when the door and its screen, if present, are opened. The alarm should sound continuously for a minimum of 30 seconds within seven seconds after the door is opened. The alarm should have a minimum sound pressure rating of 85 dBA at 10 feet, and the sound of the alarm should be distinctive from other household sounds, such as smoke alarms, telephones and doorbells. The alarm should automatically re-set under all conditions. The alarm should be equipped with manual means, such as touchpads or switches, to temporarily de-activate the alarm for a single opening of the door from either direction. Such de-activation should last for no more than 15 seconds. The de-activation touch pads or switches should be located at least 54 inches above the threshold of the door.
• The pool should be equipped with a power safety cover that complies with ASTM F1346-91.
• Other means of protection, such as self-closing doors with self-latching devices, are acceptable, as long as the degree of protection afforded is not less than the protection afforded by the guidelines above.

10. Where an above-ground pool structure is used as a barrier, or where the barrier is mounted on top
of the pool structure, and the means of access is a ladder or steps, then:

• The ladder to the pool or steps should be capable of being secured, locked or removed to prevent access.
• The ladder or steps should be surrounded by a barrier. When the ladder or steps are secured, locked, or removed, any opening created should not allow the passage of a 4-inch diameter sphere.

These guidelines are intended to provide a means of protection against potential drownings of children
under 5 years of age by restricting access to residential swimming pools, spas and hot tubs.

Swimming Pool Barriers
An outdoor swimming pool barrier is a physical obstacle that surrounds an outdoor pool so that pool
access is limited to adults. “Pool,” in this context, includes outdoor hot tubs and spas. This barrier is
often referred to as pool fencing, although walls made from brick or stone are acceptable, as well.
Children should not be able to get under, over or through the barrier.

Why are pool barriers important?
According to the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC), approximately 250 children drown
every year in residential swimming pools. In states where swimming pools are open year-round, such as
Florida, Arizona and California, drowning is the leading cause of death in and around the home for
children under 5 years old. Many of these deaths result when young children gain unsupervised access
to swimming pools due to inadequate pool fencing.

Codes concerning pool barriers vary by jurisdiction. Some states, such as Arizona, Florida and California,
have compiled their own laws concerning pool barriers, while other locations rely on the International
Residential Code (IRC). The CPSC has thoroughly researched pool-related hazards and has compiled its
own set of codes for pool fencing. The Australian government, too, has placed tremendous emphasis on
the development of pool barrier codes in an attempt to reduce the number of deaths due to drowning
in that country. The code below is taken mostly from the 2006 edition of the IRC and is substantially
similar to the other codes previously mentioned. A few helpful parts of the Australian code are also
listed.

2006 International Building Code Pool Barrier Requirements:
AG105.2. Outdoor swimming pool. An outdoor swimming pool, including an in-ground, above-ground or
on-ground pool, hot tub or spa, shall be surrounded by a barrier which shall comply with the following:
1. The top of the barrier shall be at least 48 inches above grade measured on the side of the barrier
which faces away from the swimming pool. The maximum vertical clearance between grade and the
bottom of the barrier shall be 2 inches measured on the side of the barrier which faces away from the
swimming pool. Where the top of the pool structure is above grade, such as an above-ground pool, the
barrier may be at ground level, such as the pool structure, or mounted on top of the pool structure.
Where the barrier is mounted on top of the pool structure, the maximum vertical clearance between
the top of the pool structure and the bottom of the barrier shall be 4 inches.
2. Openings in the barrier shall not allow passage of a 4-inch-diameter sphere.
3. Solid barriers which do not have openings, such as a masonry or stone wall, shall not contain
indentations or protrusions, except for normal construction tolerances and tooled masonry joints.
4. Where the barrier is composed of horizontal and vertical members and the distance between the
tops of the horizontal members is less than 45 inches, the horizontal members shall be located on the
swimming pool side of the fence. Spacing between vertical members shall not exceed 1-3/4 inches in
width. Where there are decorative cutouts within vertical members, spacing within the cutouts shall not
exceed 1-3/4 inches in width.
5. Where the barrier is composed of horizontal and vertical members and the distance between the tops
of the horizontal members is 45 inches or more, spacing between vertical members shall not exceed 4
inches. Where there are decorative cutouts within vertical members, spacing within the cutouts shall
not exceed 1-3/4 inches in width.
6. Maximum mesh size for chain link fences shall be a 2-1/4 inches square unless the fence has slats
fastened at the top or the bottom which reduce the openings to not more than 1-1/4 inches.
7. Where the barrier is composed of diagonal members, such as a lattice fence, the maximum opening
formed by the diagonal members shall not be more than 1-3/4 inches.
8. Access gates shall comply with the requirements of Section AG105.2, Items 1 through 7, and shall be
equipped to accommodate a locking device. Pedestrian access gates shall open outward, away from the
pool, and shall be self-closing and have a self-latching device. Gates other than pedestrian access gates
shall have a self-latching device. Where the release mechanism of the self-latching device is located less
than 54 inches from the bottom of the gate, the release mechanism and openings shall comply with the
following:
    8.1 The release mechanism shall be located on the pool-side of the gate at least 3 inches below the top of the gate; and
    8.2 The gate and barrier shall have no opening larger than 1/2-inch (13 mm) within 18 inches of the
release mechanism.
9. Where a wall of a dwelling serves as part of the barrier, one of the following conditions shall be met:
    9.1. The pool shall be equipped with a powered safety cover in compliance with ASTM F 1346; or
    9.2. Doors with direct access to the pool through that wall shall be equipped with an alarm which produces an audible warning when the door and/or its screen, if present, are opened. The alarm shall be listed in accordance with UL 2017. The audible alarm shall activate within seven seconds and sound continuously for a minimum of 30 seconds after the door and/or its screen, if present, are opened and be capable of being heard throughout the house during normal household activities. The alarm shall automatically re-set under all conditions. The alarm system shall be equipped with a manual means, such as touch pad or switch, to temporarily de-activate the alarm for a single opening. De-activation shall last for not more than 15 seconds. The de-activation switch(es) shall be located at least 54 inches above the threshold of the door; or
   9.3. Other means of protection, such as self-closing doors with self-latching devices, which are
approved by the governing body, shall be acceptable, so long as the degree of protection afforded is not
less than the protection afforded by Item 9.1 or 9.2 described above.
10. Where an above-ground pool structure is used as a barrier, or where the barrier is mounted on top
of the pool structure, and the means of access is a ladder or steps:
   10.1. The ladder or steps shall be capable of being secured, locked or removed to prevent access; or
   10.2. The ladder or steps shall be surrounded by a barrier which meets the requirements of Section AG105.2, Items 1 through 9. When the ladder or steps are secured, locked or removed, any opening created shall not allow the passage of a 4-inch-diameter sphere. AG105.3 Indoor swimming pool. Walls surrounding an indoor swimming pool shall comply with Section
AG105.2, Item 9. AG105.4 Prohibited locations. Barriers shall be located to prohibit permanent structures, equipment orsimilar objects from being used to climb them.
AG105.5 Barrier exceptions. Spas or hot tubs with a safety cover, which complies with ASTM F 1346, as listed in Section AG107, shall be exempt from the provisions of this appendix.

The 1994 edition of Australia’s Building Code offers the following suggestions concerning fence gaps:
If a fence has gaps, they should be of such a size that a young child is prevented from slipping
through, but the gaps also need to have dimensions such that any part of a young child's body
cannot be trapped.

Currently, the IRC makes no mention of regulations for “danger” or CPR signs that should be attached on
pool barriers. The Australian Building Code offers the following concerning CPR signs:
The CPR sign needs to be durable, and placed in a conspicuous place near the pool. It must detail the procedures necessary to undertake cardiopulmonary resuscitation.

In summary, homeowners should try to spot and correct defects in pool fencing.

Pool Alarms

A pool alarm is a safety feature designed to alert adults when unsupervised children enter a pool. There are many different designs available, but none is
foolproof. Pool owners should become acquainted with these innovations, the main types available, and the potential dangers of doing without.

Drowning remains the second leading killer of children under the age of 14 and, in many Sunbelt states, drowning tops the list.

Approximately 350 children under the age of 5 drown in swimming pools annually, mostly in residential settings. Many of these deaths occur when unsupervised children enter a pool and are unable to swim or exit, resulting in drowning or near-drowning within minutes. In these situations, pool alarms may have reduced the response time of adults, perhaps saving the child.
In December 2007, the Virginia Graeme Baker Pool and Spa Safety Act took effect, which created a voluntary grant program that encourages states to pass legislation for pool and spa safety. The bill requires states to write laws that call for pool alarms, as well as door alarms, pool covers, and self-closing/self-latching gates. Currently, however, only California, Connecticut and New York have passed such legislation.

Pool Alarm Types

• Surface wave sensor: This type of sensor floats on the water and incorporates an electrical circuit that includes two contacts. One of these contacts rests in the water, while the other is adjusted to remain above the water's surface. When a surface wave touches the above-surface contact, the electrical circuit is completed, causing an alarm to sound. Sensitivity can be increased or decreased by moving the above-surface contact closer to or further away from the water’s surface.
• Sub-surface disturbance sensor: Mounted to the pool wall below the water’s surface, this type of sensor is activated by wave-induced pressure changes. One design relies on the movement of a magnetic float below a magnetic sensor, while another design relies on a pressure-sensitive switch. Sub-surface alarms can also be used in conjunction with solar covers, whereas the surface wave-sensor alarms cannot.
• Wristband: This device is worn around the child’s wrist and it cannot be removed without a key. The alarm will activate when the wristband becomes wet, which creates opportunities for false alarms, such as when the child washes his or her hands, or walks in the rain.

In 2000, the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) staff conducted a review of commercially available swimming pool alarm systems designed to detect water disturbance or displacement. The CPSC staff evaluated surface wave sensors, sub-surface disturbance testers, and the wristband. The testers concluded that the sub-surface pool alarms generally performed more consistently for true alarms than the other designs, which were more likely to emit false alarms. Since pool alarms are not foolproof and they rely on someone remembering to activate them, they should not be depended upon as a substitute for supervision, or for a barrier completely surrounding the pool. Pool alarms should also be used in conjunction with other types of alarms, such as gate alarms, perimeter alarms, and window and door alarms. Even some pet doors come equipped with alarms, owing to the recent attention given to the 100 or so documented accidents when a child escaped to a pool through a pet door. Pool alarms are thus one protective layer of many, none of which is sufficient as a sole preventative measure against child drowning.

Pool alarms can be used to save dogs and cats, too. Data show that one out of every 1,027 pets drown in pools each year, which is a statistically higher risk than the drowning threat for small children. The reason here is obvious: pets are more likely to be allowed to roam free and unsupervised compared to small children, especially in rural areas where nearby traffic is not a danger. Also, pool fences may thwart children, while dogs and cats can jump or climb their way to the other side.Not all dogs are good swimmers, though, and even healthy dogs that are used to swimming in ponds might not be able to lift themselves out of a pool when they’re tired.

In summary, pool alarms are useful safety features to be used strictly in conjunction with other strategies.

Pool Drain Hazards

While drowning is a well-publicized danger associated with swimming pools, comparatively little has been reported about injuries and deaths caused by pool drains. Water rushing out of the drain creates a suction that can ensnare swimmers, usually small children, causing debilitating injuries and death. These drains come standard in swimming pools, hot tubs and wading pools, and while they appear harmless, parents should understand the potential dangers they pose.

Drain covers can break or be removed by people who are unaware of the possible repercussions. When this happens, a swimmer playing with the drain may become stuck to it in a way similar to how a vacuum will stick to the palm of the hand, but with much more force; 350 pounds of pressure is normal for a pool drain, and public pools are even more powerful. This “suction entrapment” can hold the bather in the drain's grasp until the person drowns or escapes, often seriously injured.

In July of 2007, a 6-year-old Minnesota girl was hospitalized after being severely injured when she sat over an open drain in a wading pool. The suction from the drain, which did not have a cover, pulled out her small intestine, requiring her to be fed intravenously. She died months later, joining the 36 other people, mostly children, who are known to have been killed in similar accidents since 1990. The actual numbers are likely much higher, as physicians often do not distinguish drowning caused by drainage suction from ordinary drowning.

The Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) distinguishes between five types of drain entrapment:
1. body entrapment, where a section of the torso becomes entrapped. The CPSC is aware of 74 cases of body entrapment, including 13 confirmed deaths, between January 1990 and August
2004. The deaths were the result of drowning after the body was held against the drain by the suction of the circulation pump;
2. limb entrapment, where an arm or leg is pulled into an open drain pipe;
3. hair entrapment or entanglement, where a person’s hair is pulled in and wrapped around the grate of the drain cover. The CPSC is aware of 43 incidents of hair entrapment or entanglement
in pools, spas and hot tubs between January 1990 and August 2004. Twelve of the incidents resulted in drowning deaths;
4. mechanical entrapment, where jewelry or part of the swimmer’s clothing gets caught in the
drain or grate; and
5. evisceration, where the victim’s buttocks come into contact with the pool suction outlet and he or she is disemboweled. While these accidents are rare, they result in lifelong impairment.

While laws regulating swimming pools are complex and vary by state, it is still helpful for homeowners to learn the following ways in which pool drains can be made safer:

• Make sure that a drain cover is present and firmly attached to the drain. If the drain cover is missing or damaged, no one should be allowed to enter the pool, and a professional should be contacted immediately. As of December 2008, the CPSC required anti-entrapment drain covers to be installed in all public pools.
• Make sure there is a safety snap fitting serving the ground pool cleaner. These devices automatically suck away dirt and leaves, but if they become disconnected from the suction fitting at the pool wall, a hazardous situation can develop. A safety snap fitting is a spring-loaded stopper that will end any suction through the port if any disconnection occurs.
• Check to see if there is a safety vacuum-release system. This device will cause the drainage to automatically cease if any entrapment occurs.
• Check for an anti-entanglement drain cover. This type of fitting is molded in a particular way so as to prevent hair entanglement.
• Use no drains at all. Gutters and overflows can be used to provide water to the pump without the need for a drain.
• Install an additional drain. According to the CPSC, “providing multiple outlets from the pool to the suction-side of the pump allows flow to continue to the pump, and reduces the likelihood of an entrapping suction from being generated when a body blocks one of the outlets.”

In summary, accidents caused by pool drains are often gruesome, but they can be prevented when the appropriate pool safety devices are installed and children are adequately supervised.

Pool Water Pathogens

Germs from other swimmers and unsafe water supplies can easily contaminate pool water, especially if it isn’t properly disinfected. Contaminated recreational water can cause a variety of ailments and diseases, such as diarrhea, and skin, ear and upper respiratory infections, particularly if the swimmer's head is submerged. Homeowners should be familiar with the problems caused by contaminated pool and spa water and the ways to prevent them.

Viruses, bacteria and protozoa are the culprits in most swimming pool-related sickness outbreaks. The mucus, saliva, blood and skin of infected swimmers can directly contaminate pool and spa water with sufficient pathogens to cause infections in other swimmers who come in contact with it. Feces are a particular danger in pools, as the pathogens they contain are typically present in enormous numbers, approaching a million per gram of feces. A single fecal release in a pool could contaminate millions of gallons of water, according to the University of Arizona's College of Public Health. Large outbreaks of disease are uncommon and they don’t typically happen in residential settings, but they should alert homeowners to just how contagious pathogens are when they’re waterborne.

Consider the following such cases:

• In 1998 in Georgia, 26 people were sickened after swimming in a pool with a child who had E. coli. Seven people were hospitalized and one was killed by the outbreak. The pool’s chlorine level had not been adequately maintained.
• In New Mexico in 2008, a competitive swimmer who ignored symptoms of diarrhea caused 92 swimmers, including other competitive swimmers, coaches and lifeguards, to contract the illness.
• In 2001 in an Illinois water park, 358 people contracted diarrhea, despite adequate chlorine and pH levels. Swimmers can add up to several pounds of feces per day in a typical water park.

Homeowners can benefit from learning about the basic pathogens that are commonly found in swimming pools:

• bacteria, such as E. coli, shigella (which causes dysentery), campylobacter, and salmonella. Bacteria are generally killed quickly by chlorine disinfectant in properly maintained swimming pools at a concentration of 1 part per million. E. coli, for instance, will be inactivated in less than one minute if exposed to typical disinfectant concentrations;
• protozoa, such as cryptosporidium (which causes diarrhea), and giardia, also known for its severe gastrointestinal effects. Some of these pathogens are highly resistant to chlorine and can survive for days in typical chlorine concentrations; and
• hepatitis A and noroviruses.

Pool disinfectants can kill most germs in less than an hour, but for others, it can take longer. Cryptosporidium, for instance, can survive for up to 10 days in a properly chlorinated pool, and other pathogens are completely resistant to chlorine. In addition, the unique circulation patterns found in pools may allow poor water circulation in some areas, making it unlikely that all pathogen activity can be fully prevented. The unfortunate truth is that chlorinated swimming pools can and do transmit disease. Swimmers should not rely solely on the pool's chemical treatments and should heed the following precautions:

• Don’t ever swallow pool water. Children sometimes jokingly spit pool water back into the pool or at their friends, but this is dangerous, as some of it may be swallowed.
• Shower with soap and water before and after swimming.
• Wash your hands with soap and water after using a toilet or changing diapers.
• Remove small children from pools for bathroom breaks, and check infants’ diapers often.
• Change diapers in a bathroom, not beside the pool.
• Wash children, especially their rear ends, thoroughly with soap and water before they enter a pool.
• Don’t swim when you have diarrhea. Diarrhea can be transmitted in pool water weeks after symptoms cease.

In summary, pathogens can easily permeate an entire pool. Some are resistant to chlorination. Pool owners should know that chemical treatments for pools and spas are best supplemented with good hygiene.